William Lyon Mackenzie King

The Right Honourable  William Lyon Mackenzie King  PC OM CMG PhD (Harv.) MA (Harv.) MA (Tor.) LLB (Tor.) BA (Tor.)
10th Prime Minister of Canada
In office October 23, 1935 – November 15, 1948
Monarch	George V Edward VIII George VI
Governor General	John Buchan, Baron Tweedsmuir, Alexander Cambridge, Earl of Athlone
Preceded by	R.B. Bennett
Succeeded by	Louis St. Laurent
In office September 25, 1926 – August 6, 1930
Governor General	Freeman Freeman-Thomas, Marquess of Willingdon
Preceded by	Arthur Meighen
Succeeded by	Richard Bedford Bennett
In office December 29, 1921 – June 29, 1926
Governor General	Julian Byng, 1st Viscount Byng of Vimy
Preceded by	Arthur Meighen
Succeeded by	Arthur Meighen
Born	December 17, 1874(1874-12-17) Berlin, Ontario
Died	July 22, 1950(1950-07-22) (aged 75) Wright County, Quebec
Political party	Liberal Party of Canada
Spouse(s)	Single; Never married
Children	None
Alma mater	University of Toronto Osgoode Hall Law School University of Chicago Harvard University
Profession	Lawyer, Professor, Civil Servant, Journalist, Consultant, Politician
Religion	Presbyterian
Signature

William Lyon Mackenzie King, PC, OM, CMG (December 17, 1874 – July 22, 1950) was the dominant Canadian political leader from the 1920s to the 1940s. He served as the tenth Prime Minister of Canada from December 29, 1921 to June 28, 1926; September 25, 1926 to August 6, 1930; and October 23, 1935 to November 15, 1948. A Liberal with 21 years in office, he was the longest-serving Prime Minister in British Commonwealth history. He is commonly known either by his full name or as Mackenzie King.^[1] Trained in law and social work he was keenly interested in the human condition; as a boy his motto was "Help those that cannot help themselves". He had a quick temper, but he was kindhearted and dreamed of shaping Canada for the better.

Early life

King was born in Berlin, Ontario (now known as Kitchener) to John King and Isabella Grace Mackenzie. His maternal grandfather was William Lyon Mackenzie, first mayor of Toronto and leader of the Upper Canada Rebellion in 1837. His father was a lawyer, later a professor at Osgoode Hall Law School. King had three siblings^[2]. He attended Berlin Central School (now Suddaby Public School) and Berlin High School (now Kitchener-Waterloo Collegiate and Vocational School). Tutors were hired to teach him more politics, science, math, English and French. The father was a lawyer with a struggling practice in a small city, and never enjoyed financial security; his parents lived a life of shabby gentility, employing servants and tutors they could scarcely afford. The son became a life-long practising Presbyterian with a dedication to applying Christian virtues to social issues in the style of the Social Gospel. He never favoured socialism.^[3]

University

King earned five university degrees. He obtained three degrees from the University of Toronto: B.A. 1895, LL.B. 1896, and M.A. 1897.^[4] While studying in Toronto he met a wide circle of friends, many of whom became prominent.^[5] He was an early member and officer of The Kappa Alpha Society, which included a number of these individuals (two future Ontario Supreme Court Justices and the future Chairman of the University itself) and served as a location for the debate of political ideas. He also met Arthur Meighen, a future political rival; the two men did not get on especially well from the start. He was especially concerned with issues of social welfare and was influenced by the settlement house movement pioneered by Toynbee Hall in London. He played a central role in fomenting a students' strike at the university in 1895. He was in close touch, behind the scenes, with Vice-Chancellor William Mulock, for whom the strike provided a chance to embarrass his rivals Chancellor Blake and President Loudon. King failed to gain his immediate objective, a teaching position at the University, but earned political credit with the man who would invite him to Ottawa and make him a deputy minister only five years later.^[6]

After studying at the University of Chicago and working with Jane Addams at her settlement house, Hull House, Mackenzie King proceeded to Harvard University. He earned an M.A. in political economy in 1898. In 1909 Harvard granted him a PhD for a dissertation based on his study of "Oriental Immigration to Canada."^[7]

Civil servant, Minister of Labour

In 1900 Mackenzie King became a civil servant in Ottawa assigned to study labour issues. His reports covered a wide range of topics; a special concern was Japanese immigration to Canada. In 1909, he became Canada's first Deputy Minister of Labour, a civil service position.^[8]

In 1901, King's roommate and best friend, Henry Albert Harper, died heroically during a skating party when a young woman fell through the ice of the partly frozen Ottawa River. Harper dove into the water to save her, and perished in the attempt. King led the effort to raise a memorial to Harper, which resulted in the erection of the Sir Galahad statue on Parliament Hill in 1905. In 1906, King published a memoir of Harper, entitled The Secret of Heroism.^[9]

He was first elected to Parliament as a Liberal in a 1908 by-election, and was re-elected by acclamation in a 1909 by-election following his appointment as the first-ever Minister of Labour.

King's term as Minister of Labour was marked by two significant achievements. He led the passage of the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act and the Combines Investigation Act, which he had erected during his civil and parliamentary service. The legislation significantly improved the financial situation for millions of Canadian workers.^[10] He lost his seat in the 1911 general election, which saw the Conservatives defeat his Liberals.

Industrial consultant

After his defeat Mackenzie King went on the lecture circuit on behalf of the Liberal Party. In June 1914 John D. Rockefeller, Jr. hired him as a senior staff member of the Rockefeller Foundation in New York City, heading their new Department of Industrial Research. It paid $12,000, compared to the meager $2500 a year the Liberal Party was paying.^[11] He worked for the Foundation until 1918, forming a close working association and friendship with Rockefeller, advising him through the turbulent period of the 1914 strike and Ludlow massacre at a family-owned coal company in Colorado, which subsequently set the stage for a new era in labor management in America.^[12]

King was not a pacifist, but he showed little enthusiasm for the Great War; he faced criticism for not serving in Canada's military and instead working for the Rockefellers. But he was 40 years old when the war began, and was not in good physical condition. He never gave up his Ottawa home, and travelled to the United States on an as-needed basis, performing valuable service by helping to keep war-related industries running smoothly.^[13]

King, while writing Industry and Humanity, 1917.

In 1918 King, assisted by his friend F.A. McGregor, published the far-sighted book Industry and Humanity: A Study in the Principles Underlying Industrial Reconstruction, a dense, abstract work that went over the head of most readers but revealed the practical idealism behind King's political thinking. He emphasized that capital and labour were natural allies, not foes, and that the community at large (represented by the government) should be the third and decisive party in industrial disputes.^[14][15] Quitting the Foundation in February 1918, Mackenzie King became an independent consultant on labour issues for the next two years, earning $1000 a week from leading American corporations. Even so he kept his official residence in Ottawa, hoping for a call to duty.^[16]

Wartime politics

In 1917 Canada was in crisis; Mackenzie King supported Liberal leader Wilfrid Laurier in his opposition to conscription, which was violently opposed in Quebec. The Liberal party became deeply split, with most Anglophones joining in the pro-conscription Union government, a coalition controlled by the Conservatives under Prime Minister Robert Borden. He returned to Canada to run in the 1917 election, which focused almost entirely on the conscription issue. Unable to overcome a landslide against him, Mackenzie King lost in the constituency of North York, which his grandfather had once represented. He was Laurier's chosen successor as leader of the Liberal Party, but it was deeply divided by Quebec's total opposition to conscription and the agrarian revolt in Ontario and the Prairies. When Laurier died in 1919, Mackenzie King was elected leader thanks to the critical support of the Quebec bloc, organized by his long-time lieutenant in Quebec, Ernest Lapointe (1876–1941). Mackenzie King could not speak French and had minimal interest in Quebec, but election after election (save for 1930) Lapointe produced the critical seats to give the Liberals a majority in Commons.^[17] In the election of 1921 Liberals won a bare majority of seats; Mackenzie King became prime minister.

Once he became the Liberal leader in 1919 he paid attention to the Prairies. With a highly romanticized view he envisioned the pioneers as morally sound, hardworking individuals who lived close to nature and to God. The reform ferment in the region meshed with his self-image as a social reformer and fighter for the "people" against the "interests." Viewing a glorious sunrise in Alberta in 1920, he wrote in his diary, "I thought of the New Day, the New Social Order. It seems like Heaven's prophecy of the dawn of a new era, revealed to me."^[18] Realism played a role too, since his party depended for its survival on the votes of Progressive party members of parliament who represented farmers in Ontario and the Prairies. He convinced many Progressives to return to the Liberal fold.^[19]

Liberal leader

In 1919, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Liberal party leader, died, and the first Liberal leadership convention was held. King entered the contest, and won over a field of four rivals, on the fourth ballot. He soon returned to parliament in a by-election. King remained leader until 1948.

Prime minister

Sir Esme Howard, Rt. Hon. W.L. Mackenzie King, Vincent Massey at the Canadian Legation during a visit to Washington on 22 November 1927

In the 1921 election, his party defeated Arthur Meighen and the Conservatives, and he became Prime Minister. King's Liberals had only a minority position, however, since they won 115 out of 233 seats; the Conservatives won 50, the newly-formed Progressive Party won 65 (but declined to form the official Opposition), and there were three Independents. This was the first minority government in Canadian history.^[20]

First parliament

During his first term of office, from 1921 to 1925, Mackenzie King pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. "The War is over," he argued, "and for a long time to come it is going to take all that the energies of man can do to bridge the chasm and heal the wounds which the War has made in our social life."^[21] He sought a Canadian voice independent of London in foreign affairs. In 1923 the British prime minister, David Lloyd George, appealed repeatedly to Mackenzie King for Canadian support in the Chanak crisis, in which a war threatened between Britain and Turkey. He coldly replied that the Canadian Parliament would decide what the policy to follow, making clear it would not be bound by London's suggestions; the episode led to the downfall of Lloyd George.^[22]

Despite prolonged negotiations, King was unable to attract the Progressives into his government, but once Parliament opened, he relied on their support to defeat non-confidence motions from the Conservatives. King was also opposed in many policies by the Progressives, which did not support trade tariffs. King faced a delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the prairie-based Progressives, who represented farmers, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial Ontario and Quebec. King and Meighen sparred constantly and bitterly in Commons debates.^[23]

As King's term wore on, the Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective and passionate leader, Thomas Crerar, resigned to return to his grain business, and was replaced by the more placid Robert Forke. The socialist reformer J.S. Woodsworth gradually gained influence and power, and King was able to reach an accommodation with him on policy matters, since the two shared many common ideas and plans.^[24]

City planning

MacKenzie King had a long-standing concern with city planning and the development of the national capital. MacKenzie King had been trained in the settlement house movement and included town planning and garden cities as a component of his broader program of social reform. He drew on four broad traditions in early North American planning: social planning, the Parks Movement, the City Scientific, and the City Beautiful. King's greatest impact was as the political champion for the planning and development of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada's national capital, much of which was completed in the two decades after his death. Confederation Square in Ottawa, Ontario, was initially planned to be a civic plaza to balance the nearby federal presence of Parliament Hill. A century of federal planning, with the direct involvement of Prime Minister Mackenzie King, repositioned it as a national space in the City Beautiful style. The Great War monument was not installed until the 1939 royal visit, and Mackenzie King intended that the replanning of the capital would be the World War II memorial. However, the symbolic meaning of the World War II monument gradually expanded to become the place of remembrance for all Canadian war sacrifices.^[25][26]

Second parliament

King called an election in 1925, in which the Conservatives won the most seats, but not a majority in the House of Commons. King held on to power with the support of the Progressives. Soon into his term, however, a bribery scandal in the Department of Customs was revealed, which led to more support for the Conservatives and Progressives, and the possibility that King would be forced to resign. Mackenzie King advised the governor-general, Governor General Lord Byng to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Byng refused, the only time in Canadian history that the Governor General has exercised such a power. Instead Byng called upon the Conservative Party leader, Arthur Meighen, to form a government. Meighen was unable to obtain a majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time was accepted. In the ensuing election of 1926, Mackenzie King appealed for public support of the constitutional principle that the governor-general must accept the advice of his ministers, though this principle was at most only customary. The Liberals argued that the governor-general had interfered in politics and shown favor to one party over another. Mackenzie King and his party won the election and a clear majority in the Commons.^[27]

The crisis of 1926 provoked a consideration of the constitutional relations between the self-governing dominions and the British government. During the next five years the position of the governor-general of a dominion was clarified; he ceased to be a representative of the British government and became a representative of The Crown. The independent position of the dominions in the Commonwealth and in the international community was put on a firm legal foundation by the Statute of Westminster (1931).^[28]

In domestic affairs Mackenzie King strengthened the Liberal policy of increasing the powers of the provincial governments by transferring to the governments of Manitoba, Alberta, and Saskatchewan the ownership of the crown lands within those provinces, as well as the subsoil rights. In collaboration with the provincial governments he inaugurated a system of old-age pensions based on need.^[29]

King, in court dress, speaking on Parliament Hill during a ceremony celebrating the Diamond Jubilee of Confederation, 1 July 1927

Third parliament

In his third term, Mackenzie King introduced old-age pensions. In February 1930, he appointed Cairine Wilson as the first female senator in Canadian history. His government was in power during the beginning of the Great Depression, but was slow to respond to the mounting crisis. Just prior to the election, Mackenzie King blundered badly by carelessly responding to criticism over his handling of the economic crisis; he stated that he "would not give a five-cent piece" to Tory provincial governments. This turned into the key election issue. The Liberals lost the election of 1930 to the Conservative Party, led by Richard Bedford Bennett.^[30]

After his loss, Mackenzie King stayed on as Opposition Leader, where it was his policy to refrain from offering advice or alternative policies; Mackenzie King's policy preferences were not much different from Bennett's and he let the Conservative government have its way. Though he gave the impression of sympathy with progressive and liberal causes, he had no enthusiasm for the New Deal of American President Franklin D. Roosevelt (which Bennett tried to emulate), and he never advocated massive government action to alleviate depression in Canada.^[31]

Fourth parliament

In 1935 the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide in the 1935 election. Promising a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930-31, lowing tariffs, and yielding a dramatic increase in trade; more subtly, it revealed to the prime minister and the president that they could work together well.^[32]

The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, and King implemented relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission. His government also made the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation a crown corporation in 1936, Trans-Canada Airlines (the precursor to Air Canada) in 1937, and the National Film Board of Canada in 1939. In 1938, he changed the Bank of Canada from a private company to a crown corporation.^[33]

After 1936 the prime minister lost patience when westerners preferred radical alternatives such as the CCF (Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) and Social Credit to his middle-of-the-road liberalism. Indeed, he came close to writing off the region with his comment that the prairie dust bowl was "part of the U.S. desert area. I doubt if it will be of any real use again."^[19] Instead he paid more attention to the industrial regions and the needs of Ontario and Quebec regarding the proposed St. Lawrence Seaway project with the United States.^[34] As for the unemployed, he was hostile to federal relief and reluctantly accepted a Keynesian solution that involved federal deficit spending, tax cuts and subsidies to the housing market.^[35]

Germany

In March 1936, in response to the German remilitarization of the Rhineland, King had the Canadian High Commissioner in London inform the British government that if Britain went to war with Germany over the Rhineland issue that Canada would remain neutral.^[36] In June 1937, during an Imperial Conference of all the Dominion Prime Ministers in London convened during the coronation of King George VI, King informed British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain that Canada would only go to war if Britain were directly attacked, and that if Britain were to become involved in a continental war then Chamberlain was not to expect Canadian support.^[37] Also during 1937, King visited Germany and met with Adolf Hitler, becoming the only North American head of government to meet with Hitler.

Possessing a religious yearning for direct insight into the hidden mysteries of life and the universe, and strongly influenced by the operas of Richard Wagner, Mackenzie King decided Hitler was a akin to mythical Wagnerian heroes within whom good and evil were struggling. He thought that good would eventually triumph and Hitler would redeem his people and lead them to a harmonious, uplifting future. These spiritual attitudes not only guided Canada's relations with Hitler but gave the prime minister the comforting sense of a higher mission, that of helping to lead Hitler to peace. King commented in his journal that "he is really one who truly loves his fellow-men, and his country, and would make any sacrifice for their good". He forecast that "the world will yet come to see a very great man – mystic in Hitler. [...] I cannot abide in Nazism – the regimentation – cruelty – oppression of Jews – attitude towards religion, etc., but Hitler, him – the peasant – will rank some day with Joan of Arc among the deliverers of his people."^[38][39]

In late 1938, during the great crisis in Europe over Czechoslovakia that culminated in the Munich Agreement, Canadians were divided. Francophones insisted on neutrality, as did some top advisers like O.D. Skelton. Imperialists stood behind Britain and were willing to fight Germany. Mackenzie King, who served as his own secretary of state for external affairs (foreign minister), said privately that if he had to choose he would not be neutral, but he made no public statement. All of Canada was relieved that the British appeasement at Munich, while sacrificing the rights of the Czechs, seemed to bring peace.^[40]

Ethnic policies

While Minister of Labour, King was appointed to investigate the causes of and claims for compensation resulting from the 1907 Asiatic Exclusion League riots in Vancouver's Chinatown and Japantown. One of the claims for damages came from Chinese opium manufacturers, which led King to investigate narcotics use in Vancouver. King became alarmed upon hearing that white women were also opium users, not just Chinese men, and he then initiated the process that led to the first legislation outlawing narcotics in Canada.^[41]

Under King's administration, the Canadian government, responding to strong public opinion, especially in Quebec, refused to expand immigration opportunities for Jewish refugees from Europe.^[42] In June 1939 Canada, along with Cuba and the United States, refused to allow the 900 Jewish refugees aboard the passenger ship M.S. St. Louis refuge.^[43]

Fifth parliament, Second World War

King George VI, Queen Elizabeth, and Prime Minister Mackenzie King in Banff, Alberta, 1939

King (back left) with (counterclockwise from King) Franklin D. Roosevelt, Governor General the Earl of Athlone and Winston Churchill during the Quebec conference in 1943.

King (far right) together with (from left to right) Governor General the Earl of Athlone, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill at the Octagon Conference, Quebec City, September, 1944

Norman Robertson and Mackenzie King, 1944

King, sitting left, at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference.

Asserts Canadian autonomy

Mackenzie King realized the likelihood of World War II before Hitler invaded Poland in 1939, and began mobilizing on August 25, 1939, with full mobilization on September 1. Unlike World War I, however, when Canada was automatically at war as soon as Britain joined, King asserted Canadian autonomy by waiting until September 10, a full week after Britain's declaration, when a vote in the House of Commons took place, to support the government's decision to declare war.

Mobilisation

Mackenzie King linked Canada more and more closely to the United States, signing an agreement with Roosevelt at Ogdensburg, New York, in August 1940 that provided for the close cooperation of Canadian and American forces. During the war the Americans virtually took control of the Yukon and Newfoundland in building the Alaska highway and major airbases.^[44]

Mackenzie King—and Canada—were largely ignored by Winston Churchill, despite Canada's major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the North Atlantic against German U-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943-45. Mackenzie King proved highly successful in mobilizing the economy for war, with impressive results in industrial and agricultural output. The depression ended and prosperity returned. On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity.^[45]

To rearm Canada he built the Royal Canadian Air Force as a viable military power, while at the same time keeping it separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. He was instrumental in obtaining the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, which was signed in Ottawa in December, 1939, binding Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half their airmen in the Second World War.^[45]

Expands scientific research

King's government greatly expanded the role of the National Research Council of Canada during the war, moving into full-scale research in nuclear physics and commercial use of nuclear power in the following years. King, with C.D. Howe acting as point man, moved the nuclear group from Montreal to Chalk River, Ontario in 1944, with the establishment of Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories and the residential town of Deep River, Ontario. Canada became a world leader in this field, with the NRX reactor becoming operational in 1947; at the time, NRX was the only operational nuclear reactor outside the United States.^[46]

Conscription Crisis

King's promise not to impose conscription contributed to the defeat of Maurice Duplessis's Union Nationale Quebec provincial government in 1939 and Liberals' re-election in the 1940 election. But after the fall of France in 1940, Canada introduced conscription for home service. Still, only volunteers were to be sent overseas. King wanted to avoid a repeat of the Conscription Crisis of 1917. By 1942, the military was pressing King hard to send conscripts to Europe. In 1942, King held a national plebiscite on the issue asking the nation to relieve him of the commitment he had made during the election campaign. In the House of Commons on 10 June 1942, he said that his policy was "not necessarily conscription but conscription if necessary."

French Canadians voted against conscription, with over 70% opposed, but an overwhelming majority – over 80% – of English Canadians supported it. French and English conscripts were sent to fight in the Aleutian Islands in 1943 – technically North American soil and therefore not "overseas" – but the mix of Canadian volunteers and draftees found that the Japanese troops had fled before their arrival. Otherwise, King continued with a campaign to recruit volunteers, hoping to address the problem with the shortage of troops caused by heavy losses in the Dieppe Raid in 1942, in Italy in 1943, and after the Battle of Normandy in 1944. In November 1944, the Government decided it was necessary to send conscripts to Europe. This led to a brief political crisis (see Conscription Crisis of 1944) and a mutiny by conscripts posted in British Columbia, but the war ended a few months later. Over 15,000 conscripts went to Europe, though only a few hundred saw combat.

Interns Japanese-Canadians

After the start of war with Japan in December 1941 the government oversaw the Japanese-Canadian internment on Canada’s west coast, which sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation camps far from the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal and fears of espionage or sabotage.^[47] Mackenzie King and his cabinet ignored reports from the RCMP and Canadian military that most of the Japanese were law-abiding and not a threat.^[48]

Canadian autonomy

Throughout his tenure, King led Canada from a colony with responsible government to an autonomous nation within the British Commonwealth. During the Chanak Crisis of 1922, King refused to support the British without first consulting Parliament, while the Conservative leader, Arthur Meighen, supported Britain. The British were disappointed with King's response, but the crisis was soon resolved, as King had anticipated.^[49] After the King-Byng Affair, King went to the Imperial Conference of 1926 and argued for greater autonomy of the Dominions. This resulted in the Balfour Declaration 1926, which announced the equal status of all members of the British Commonwealth (as it was known then), including Britain. This eventually led to the Statute of Westminster 1931. The Canadian city of Hamilton hosted the first Empire Games in 1930; this competition later became known as the Commonwealth Games.

In the lead-up to World War II in 1939, King affirmed Canadian autonomy by saying that the Canadian Parliament would make the final decision on the issue of going to war. He reassured the pro-British Canadians that Parliament would surely decide that Canada would be at Britain's side if Great Britain was drawn into a major war. At the same time, he reassured those who were suspicious of British influence in Canada by promising that Canada would not participate in British colonial wars. His Quebec lieutenant, Ernest Lapointe, promised French-Canadians that the government would not introduce conscription; individual participation would be voluntary. In 1939, in a country which had seemed deeply divided, these promises made it possible for Parliament to agree almost unanimously to declare war.

King played two roles. On the one hand, he told English Canadians that Canada would no doubt enter war if Britain did. On the other hand, he and his Quebec lieutenant Ernest Lapointe told French Canadians that Canada would only go to war if it was in the country's best interests. With the dual messages, King slowly led Canada toward war without causing strife between Canada's two main linguistic communities. As his final step in asserting Canada's autonomy, King ensured that the Canadian Parliament made its own declaration of war one week after Britain.

King's government introduced the Canadian Citizenship Act in 1946, which officially created the notion of "Canadian citizens". Prior to this, Canadians were considered British subjects living in Canada. On 3 January 1947, King received Canadian citizenship certificate number 0001.^[50]

Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King becomes the first person to take the Oath of Citizenship, from Chief Justice Thibaudeau Rinfret, in the Supreme Court, 3 January 1947

Hon. Brooke Claxton and colleagues in 1946 at the Paris Peace Conference, Palais du Luxembourg. (L.-r.:) Norman Robertson, Rt. Hon. W.L. Mackenzie King, Hon. Brooke Claxton, Arnold Heeney

William Lyon Mackenzie King greeting Barbara Ann Scott, who won a gold medal in figure skating at the 1948 Winter Olympic Games, at Ottawa

Post-war Canada, sixth parliament

King helped found the United Nations in 1945 and attended the opening meetings in San Francisco. King became pessimistic about the organization's future possibilities. After the war, King quickly dismantled wartime controls. Unlike World War I, press censorship ended with the hostilities. He began an ambitious program of social programs and laid the groundwork for Newfoundland and Labrador's entry into Canada.

King moved Canada into the deepening Cold War in alliance with the U.S. an d Britain. He dealt with the espionage revelations of Russian cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko, who defected in Ottawa in 1945 by appointing a Royal Commission to investigate Gouzenko's allegations of a Canadian Communist spy-ring transmitting top secret documents to the Soviet Union. External Affairs minister Louis St. Laurent dealt decisively with this crisis; St. Laurent's leadership deepened King's respect, and helped make St. Laurent the next Canadian Prime Minister three years later.^[51]

On January 20, 1948, King called on the Liberal Party to hold its first national convention since 1919 to choose a leader. The August convention chose Louis St. Laurent as the new leader of the Liberal Party. Three months later, King retired after 22 years as prime minister. King also had the most terms (six) as Prime Minister. Sir John A. Macdonald was second-in-line, with 19 years, as the longest-serving Prime Minister in Canadian History (1867–1873, 1878–1891). Mackenzie King was not charismatic and did not have a large personal following. Only 8 Canadians in 100 picked him when the Canadian Gallup (CIPO) poll asked in September, 1946, "What person living in any part of the world today do you admire?" Nevertheless, his Liberal Party was re-elected in the election of 1945.

Personal life

King kept a very candid diary from 1893 until his death in 1950. One biographer called these diaries as "the most important single political document in twentieth-century Canadian history,"^[52] for they explain motivations of the Canadian war efforts and describe other events in detail.

Mackenzie King was a cautious politician who tailored his policies to prevailing opinions. "Parliament will decide," he liked to say when pressed to act and would often say "In times of need all nations face difficult decisions, Canada is not an exception".

Privately, he was highly eccentric with his preference for communing with spirits, including those of Leonardo da Vinci, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, his dead mother, and several of his Irish Terrier dogs, all named Pat except one named Bob. He also claimed to commune with the spirit of the late President Roosevelt. He sought personal reassurance from the spirit world, rather than seeking political advice. Indeed, after his death, one of his mediums said that she had not realized that he was a politician. King asked whether his party would win the 1935 election, one of the few times politics came up during his seances. His occult interests were kept secret during his years in office, and only became publicized later, and have seen in his occult activities a penchant for forging unities from antitheses, thus having latent political import. In 1953 Time Magazine stated that he owned — and used — both a Ouija board and a crystal ball.

King never married, but had several close women friends, including Joan Patteson, a married woman with whom he spent some of his leisure time.

Some historians have interpreted passages in his diaries as suggesting that King regularly had sexual relations with prostitutes.^[53] Others, also basing their claims on passages of his diaries, have suggested that King was in love with Lord Tweedsmuir, whom he had chosen for appointment as Governor General in 1935.^[54]

Death

Mackenzie King's headstone

Mackenzie King died on July 22, 1950, at Kingsmere from pneumonia, with his retirement plans to write his memoirs unfulfilled. He is buried in Mount Pleasant Cemetery, Toronto. Unmarried, King is survived by relative Margery King.

Legacy

King was ranked #1, or greatest Canadian Prime Minister, by a survey of Canadian historians.^[55]

Mackenzie King lacked the typical personal attributes of great leaders, especially in comparison with Franklin D. Roosevelt of the U.S., Winston Churchill of Britain, Charles de Gaulle of France, or even Joey Smallwood of Newfoundland. Voters did not love him. He lacked charisma, a commanding presence or oratorical skills; he did not shine on radio or in newsreels. His best writing was academic. Cold and tactless in human relations, he had allies but no close personal friends; he never married and lacked a hostess whose charm could substitute for his chill. His allies were annoyed by his constant intrigues. He kept secret his beliefs in spiritualism and use of mediums to stay in contact with departed associates and particularly with his beloved mother, and allowed his intense spirituality to distort his understanding of Hitler. Mackenzie King remained so long in power because he had remarkable skills that were exactly appropriate to Canada's needs. He was keenly sensitive to the nuances of public policy; he was a workaholic with a shrewd and penetrating intelligence and a profound understanding of how society and the economy worked. Deeply religious, and inspired by his famous grandfather, he wanted to uplift the spirit of the people, but at the same time he understood labour and capital. He had a pitch-perfect ear for the Canadian temperament and mentality, and was a master of timing. A modernizing technocrat who regarded managerial mediation as essential to an industrial society, he wanted his Liberal party to represent liberal corporatism to create social harmony. Mackenzie King worked tirelessly and successfully to bring compromise and harmony to many competing and feuding elements, using politics and government action as his great instrument. He conducted the Liberal party over 29 years, and established Canada's international reputation as a middle power fully committed to world order.^[56]

His most famous quote was "A true man does not only stand up for himself, he stands up for those that do not have the ability to".

Memory

Following the publication of King's diaries in the 1970s, several fictional works about him were published by Canadian writers. These included Elizabeth Gourlay's novel Isabel, Allan Stratton's play Rexy and Heather Robertson's trilogy Willie: A Romance (1983), Lily: A Rhapsody in Red (1986) and Igor: A Novel of Intrigue (1989).

King's image on the Canadian fifty-dollar bill

In 1998, there was controversy over King's exclusion from a memorial to the Quebec Conference, which was attended by King, Roosevelt, and Churchill. The monument was built by the sovereigntist Parti Québécois government of Quebec, which justified the decision on the basis that King was not important enough. Canadian federalists, however, accused the government of Quebec of trying to advance their own political agenda.

OC Transpo has dedicated a Transitway station to Mackenzie King due to its location on the Mackenzie King Bridge. It is located adjacent to the Rideau Centre in downtown Ottawa.

His likeness is on the Canadian fifty-dollar bill.

King left no published political memoirs, although his private diaries were extensively detailed. His main published work remains his 1918 book Industry and Humanity.

Part of his country retreat, now called Mackenzie King Estate, at Kingsmere in the Gatineau Park, near Ottawa, is open to the public. The house King died in, called "The Farm", is the official residence of the Speaker of the Canadian House of Commons and is not part of the park.

The gardens at Mackenzie King Estate

The Woodside National Historic Site in Kitchener, Ontario was the cherished boyhood home of William Lyon Mackenzie King. The estate has over 4.65 hectares of garden and parkland for exploring and relaxing, and the house has been restored to reflect life during King's era. There is a MacKenzie King Public School in the Heritage Park neighbourhood in Kitchener.

A high school was built in his honor in 2009 and was named William Lyon Mackenzie King Secondary School.

King was mentioned in the book Alligator Pie by Dennis Lee as the subject of a nonsensical children's poem, which reads "William Lyon Mackenzie King / He sat in the middle and played with string / He loved his mother like anything / William Lyon Mackenzie King."

Supreme Court appointments

Statue of Mackenzie King on Parliament Hill, in Ottawa, Ontario

King chose the following jurists to be appointed as justices of the Supreme Court of Canada by the Governor General:

• Arthur Cyrille Albert Malouin (30 January 30, 1924 – 1 October 1, 1924)
• Francis Alexander Anglin (as Chief Justice, 16 September 16, 1924 – 28 February 28, 1933; appointed a Puisne Justice under Prime Minister Laurier, 23 February 23, 1909)
• Edmund Leslie Newcombe (September 16, 1924 – December 9, 1931)
• Thibaudeau Rinfret (October 1, 1924 – June 22, 1954; appointed as Chief Justice January 8, 1944)
• John Henderson Lamont (April 2, 1927 – March 10, 1936)
• Robert Smith (May 18, 1927 – December 7, 1933)
• Lawrence Arthur Dumoulin Cannon (January 14, 1930 – December 25, 1939)
• Albert Blellock Hudson (March 24, 1936 – January 6, 1947)
• Robert Taschereau (February 9, 1940 – September 1, 1967)
• Ivan Rand (April 22, 1943 – April 27, 1959)
• Roy Lindsay Kellock (October 3, 1944 – January 15, 1958)
• James Wilfred Estey (October 6, 1944 – January 22, 1956)
• Charles Holland Locke (June 3, 1947 – September 16, 1962)

References

Further reading

Biographical

• Bliss, Michael. Right Honourable Men: The Descent of Canadian Politics from Macdonald to Mulroney (1994), pp. 123–184.
• Courtney, John C. "Prime Ministerial Character: An Examination of Mackenzie King's Political Leadership," Canadian Journal of Political Science Vol. 9, No. 1 (Mar., 1976), pp. 77–100 in JSTOR
• Dawson, R.M. William Lyon Mackenzie King: A Political Biography. Vol. 1: 1874-1923, (1958) online edition
• English, John, and J. O. Stubbs, eds. Mackenzie King: Widening the Debate, (1977), 257pp; 11 essays by scholars
• Esberey, Joy E. Knight of the Holy Spirit: A Study of William Lyon Mackenzie King. (1980). 245 pp. a psychobiography stressing his spirituality
• Ferns, Henry, Bernard Ostry, and John Meisel. The Age of Mackenzie King (1976), 396pp; scholarly biography to 1919; excerpt and text search
• Granatstein, J.L.. Mackenzie King: His Life and World, (1977).
• Hutchison, Bruce. The Incredible Canadian. 1952, a controversial popular book
• McGregor, F. A. The Fall & Rise of Mackenzie King, 1911-1919 (1962) online edition
• Neatby, H. Blair. "King, William Lyon Mackenzie," Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online
• Neatby, H. Blair. William Lyon Mackenzie King, 1924-1932: The Lonely Heights (1963) standard biography, online edition
• Neatby, H. Blair. William Lyon Mackenzie King: 1932-1939: the Prism of Unity (1976) standard biography online edition
• Stacey, C. P. A Very Double Life: The Private World of Mackenzie King (1985) excerpt and text search
• Wardhaugh, Robert A. "A Marriage of Convenience? Mackenzie King and Prince Albert Constituency," Prairie Forum 1996 21(2): 177-199. He represented the safe Saskatchewan district 1926-45; his goal was to disarm the Progressives
• Whitaker, Reginald. "Political Thought and Political Action in Mackenzie King." Journal of Canadian Studies 1978-1979 13(4): 40-60. Issn: 0021-9495

Scholarly studies

• Allen, Ralph. Ordeal by Fire: Canada, 1910–1945, (1961), 492pp online edition
• Betcherman, Lita-Rose. Ernest Lapointe: Mackenzie King's Great Quebec Lieutenant. (2002). 435 pp.
• Cuff, R. D. and Granatstein, J. L. Canadian-American Relations in Wartime: From the Great War to the Cold War. (1975). 205 pp.
• Donaghy, Greg, ed. Canada and the Early Cold War, 1943-1957 (1998) online edition
• Dziuban, Stanley W. Military Relations between the United States and Canada, 1939–1945 (1959) online edition
• Eayrs James. In Defence of Canada. 5 vols. 1964-1983. the standard history of defense policy
• Esberey, J.B. "Personality and Politics: A New Look at the King-Byng Dispute," Canadian Journal of Political Science vol 6 no. 1 (March 1973), 37-55.
• Granatstein, J. L. Canada's War: The politics of the Mackenzie King government, 1939–1945 (1975)
• Granatstein, J. L. Conscription in the Second World War, 1939–1945;: A study in political management (1969)
• Granatstein, J.L. and Norman Hillmer. Prime Ministers: Ranking Canada's Leaders, 1999, pp. 83–101.
• Macfarlane, John. "Double Vision: Ernest Lapointe, Mackenzie King and the Quebec Voice in Canadian Foreign Policy, 1935-1939," Journal of Canadian Studies 1999 34(1): 93-111; argues Lapointe guided the more imperialist Mackenzie King through three explosive situations: the Ethiopian crisis of 1935, the Munich crisis of 1938, and the formulation of Ottawa's 'no-neutrality-no-conscription' pact in 1939.
• Neatby, H. Blair. The Politics of Chaos: Canada in the Thirties (1972) online edition
• Stacey, C. P. Arms, Men and Governments: The War Policies of Canada, 1939–1945 (1970)
• Stacey, C. P. Canada and the Age of Conflict: Volume 2: 1921–1948; the Mackenzie King Era, University of Toronto Press 1981, ISBN 0-0820-2397-5.
• Thompson, John H., and Allan Seager. Canada 1922-1939. (1985). standard scholarly survey. (Part of The Canadian Centenary Series.)
• Whitaker, Reginald. The Government Party: Organizing and Financing the Liberal Party of Canada, 1930-1958 (1977)

Primary sources

• The Canadian Annual Review of Public Affairs (annual, 1901–1938), full text for 1920 online and downloadable
• Mackenzie King, W. L. Industry and Humanity: A Study in the Principles Under-Lying Industrial Reconstruction (1918) online edition; also full text online and downloadable
• The diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King, 50,000 pages, typescript; fully searchable
• Pickersgill, J.W., and Donald F. Forster, The Mackenzie King Record. 4 vols. Vol. 1: 1939-1944 and Vol. 2: 1944-1945 (University of Toronto Press, 1960); and Vol. 3: 1945-1946 online and Vol. 4: 1946-1947 online (University of Toronto Press, 1970). Edited from King's private diary.
• Hou, Charles, and Cynthia Hou, eds. Great Canadian Political Cartoons, 1915 to 1945. (2002). 244pp
• Canadian Department of External Affairs, Documents on Canadian External Relations (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, 1967-). These cover the period 1909-1960. (Often referred to as DCER.)

Television series

• Brittain, Donald. The King Chronicles, National Film Board, 1988.

External links

• William Lyon Mackenzie King's Diary online
• Canadian Newspapers and the Second World War – William Lyon Mackenzie King

For a visual chronology of King's life, see Life of William Lyon Mackenzie King at Wikimedia Commons.

• Mackenzie King declares war against Nazi Germany (.rm file)
• Federal Political Experience from the Library of Parliament
• William Lyon MacKenzie King At Find A Grave
• CBC Digital Archives – Mackenzie King: Public Life, Private Man
• – Woodside National Historic Site page from Parks Canada website
• The secret of heroism : a memoir of Henry Albert Harper by William Lyon Mackenzie King at archive.org
• William Lyon Mackenzie King Estate Visitor's Information

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